| Author: |
James M. Jay, Martin J. Loessner & David A. Golden
|
| Release at: | 2005 |
| Pages: | 782 |
| Edition: |
Seventh Edition
|
| File Size: | 9 MB |
| File Type: | |
| Language: | English |
Content of Modern Food Microbiology
Part I HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1
1 History of Microorganisms in Food3
Historical Developments 4
Food Preservation 5
Food Spoilage 6
Food Poisoning 7
Food Legislation 8
Part II HABITATS, TAXONOMY, AND GROWTH PARAMETERS. 11
2 Taxonomy, Role, and Significance of Microorganisms in Foods. 13
Bacterial Taxonomy . 14
rRNA Analyses 14
Analysis of DNA. 15
The Proteobacteria 15
Primary Sources of Microorganisms Found in Foods . 17
Synopsis of Common Foodborne Bacteria 20
Synopsis of Common Genera of Foodborne Molds 27
Synopsis of Common Genera of Foodborne Yeasts 31
3 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Parameters of Foods That Affect Microbial Growth. 39
Intrinsic Parameters. 39
pH 39
Moisture Content. 45
Oxidation-Reduction Potential. 49
Nutrient Content 52
Antimicrobial Constituents. 53
Biological Structures. 54
Extrinsic Parameters 54
Temperature of Storage 54
Relative Humidity of Environment56
Presence and Concentration of Gases in the Environment. 56
Presence and Activities of Other Microorganisms 56
Part III MICROORGANISMS IN FOODS. 61
4 Fresh Meats and Poultry. 63
Biochemical Events That Lead to Rigor Mortis64
The Biota of Meats and Poultry64
Incidence/Prevalence of Microorganisms in Fresh Red Meats66
Bacteria 68
Soy-Extended Ground Meats 73
Mechanically Deboned Meats74
Hot-Boned Meats. 75
Organ and Variety Meats77
Microbial Spoilage of Fresh Red Meats. 78
Mechanism 82
Spoilage of Fresh Livers 87
Incidence/Prevalence of Microorganisms in Fresh Poultry88
Microbial Spoilage of Poultry. 89
Carcass Sanitizing/Washing91
5 Processed Meats and Seafoods 101
Processed Meats. 101
Curing101
Smoking 103
Sausage, Bacon, Bologna, and Related Products 103
Spoilage 104
Bacon and Cured Hams. 108
Safety108
Seafoods 109
Fish and Shellfish. 109
Microorganisms109
Spoilage of Fish and Shellfish. 115
Fish. 115
Shellfish 118
6 Vegetable and Fruit Products 125
Fresh and Frozen Vegetables 125
Spoilage 128
Bacterial Agents 128
Fungal Agents. 134
Spoilage of Fruits 137
Fresh-Cut Produce138
Microbial Load138
Seed Sprouts 139
Pathogens140
Internalization of Pathogens 142
Disease Outbreaks 143
7 Milk, Fermentation, and Fermented and Nonfermented Dairy Products. 149
Fermentation. 149
Background 149
Defined and Characterized150
The Lactic Acid Bacteria150
Metabolic Pathways and Molar Growth Yields 154
Acetic Acid Bacteria 155
Dairy Products 156
Milk. 156
Processing. 157
Pasteurization. 157
General Microbiota of Milk. 158
Milk-Borne Pathogens 158
Spoilage 160
Probiotics and Prebiotics 161
Lactose Intolerance . 162
Starter Cultures, Fermented Products . 163
Fermented Products164
Cheeses. 168
Diseases caused by Lactic Acid Bacteria 169
8 Nondairy Fermented Foods and Products 175
Meat Products 175
Fish Products . 178
Breads . 179
Plant Products 180
Sauerkraut . 180
Olives180
Pickles . 181
Beer, Ale, Wines, Cider, and Distilled Spirits 182
Beer and Ale 182
Wines184
Cider185
Distilled Spirits 186
Miscellaneous Products . 188
9 Miscellaneous Food Products197
Delicatessen and Related Foods 197
Eggs 198
Mayonnaise and Salad Dressing 202
Cereals, Flour, and Dough Products 203
Bakery Products. 203
Frozen Meat Pies204
Sugars, Candies, and Spices204
Nutmeats 205
Dehydrated Foods 206
Enteral Nutrient Solutions (Medical Foods) . 206
Single-Cell Protein (SCP) 207
Rationale for SCP Production 207
Organisms and Fermentation Substrates207
SCP Products. 209
Nutrition and Safety of SCP 209
Bottled Water . 210
Part IV DETERMINING MICROORGANISMS AND/OR THEIR PRODUCTS IN FOODS. 215
10 Culture, Microscopic, and Sampling Methods217
Conventional Standard Plate Count 217
Homogenization of Food Samples . 218
The Spiral Plater 219
Membrane Filters220
Direct Epifluorescent Filter Technique 221
Microcolony-DEFT 221
Hydrophobic Grid Membrane Filter (HGMF) 222
Microscope Colony Counts223
Agar Droplets 223
Dry Film and Related Methods223
Most Probable Numbers 224
Dye Reduction 225
Roll Tubes 225
Direct Microscopic Count (DMC) 225
Howard Mold Counts 226
Microbiological Examination of Surfaces226
Swab/Swab-Rinse Methods. 227
Contact Plate 227
Agar Syringe/“Agar Sausage” Methods 228
Other Surface Methods 228
Metabolically Injured Organisms . 229
Recovery/Repair 231
Mechanism of Repair 233
Viable but Nonculturable Organisms . 233
11 Chemical, Biological, and Physical Methods . 241
Chemical Methods241
Thermostable Nuclease 241
Limulus Lysate for Endotoxins . 244
Adenosine Triphosphate Measurement 247
Radiometry 247
Fluorogenic and Chromogenic Substrates 248
Immunological Methods 250
Serotyping . 250
Fluorescent Antibody 251
Enrichment Serology . 252
Salmonella 1–2 Test . 252
Radioimmunoassay 253
ELISA. 253
Gel Diffusion . 255
Immunomagnetic Separation255
Hemagglutination256
Molecular Genetic Methods 256
Nucleic Acid (DNA) Probes 257
Polymerase Chain Reaction . 258
Lux Gene Luminescence261
Ice Nucleation Assay . 262
Fingerprinting Methods . 263
Bacteriophage Typing 263
Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism. 265
Multilocus Enzyme Electrophoresis Typing. 265
Restriction Enzyme Analysis 266
Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA266
Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis 267
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism267
Ribotyping . 268
Microarrays 268
Physical Methods269
Biosensors . 269
Impedance 272
Microcalorimetry . 273
Flow Cytometry274
BioSys Instrument 275
12 Bioassay and Related Methods . 285
Whole-Animal Assays285
Mouse Lethality285
Suckling (Infant) Mouse. 288
Rabbit and Mouse Diarrhea . 288
Monkey Feeding 289
Kitten (Cat) Test289
Rabbit and Guinea Pig Skin Tests. 289
Sereny and Anton Tests. 290
Animal Models Requiring Surgical Procedures . 290
Ligated Loop Techniques 290
The RITARD Model . 291
Cell Culture Systems291
Human Mucosal Cells 292
Human Fetal Intestine 292
Human Ileal and Intestinal Cells 292
Guinea Pig Intestinal Cells 292
HeLa Cells . 294
Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells294
Vero Cells . 295
Y-1 Adrenal Cell Assay. 295
Other Assays 295
Part V FOOD PROTECTION AND SOME PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROTROPHS, THERMOPHILES, AND RADIATION-RESISTANT BACTERIA 299
13 Food Protection with Chemicals, and by Biocontrol 301
Benzoic Acid and The Parabens 301
Sorbic Acid 303
The Propionates. 305
Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfites305
Nitrites and Nitrates. 306
Organisms Affected 307
The Perigo Factor. 308
Interaction with Cure Ingredients and Other Factors 308
Nitrosamines 309
Nitrite–Sorbate and Other Nitrite Combinations. 309
Mode of Action310
Summary of Nitrite Effects . 311
Food Sanitizers 312
Acidified Sodium Chlorite . 312
Electrolized oxidizing water 312
Activated Lactoferrin (ALF, Activin) . 314
Ozone (O3) 314
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) . 315
Chlorine and Other Agents . 317
NaCl and Sugars . 320
Indirect Antimicrobials . 321
Antioxidants 321
Flavoring Agents . 322
Spices and Essential Oils323
Phosphates . 324
Medium-Chain Fatty Acids and Esters 324
Acetic and Lactic Acids 326
Salts of Acetic and Lactic Acids 326
Antibiotics 327
Monensin 328
Natamycin . 329
Tetracyclines 329
Subtilin . 330
Tylosin . 330
Antifungal Agents for Fruits330
Ethylene and Propylene Oxides331
Miscellaneous Chemical Preservatives331
Chitosans 331
Dimethyl Dicarbonate 332
Ethanol . 332
Glucose Oxidase . 333
Polyamino Acids . 333
Biocontrol. 333
Microbial Interference 333
Nisin and Other Bacteriocins336
Other Bacteriocins339
Endolysins 339
Bacteriophages as Biocontrol Agents340
The Hurdle Concept. 341
14 Food Protection with Modified Atmospheres351
Definitions 351
Hypobaric (Low Pressure) Storage351
Vacuum Packaging352
Modified Atmosphere Packaging 353
Equilibrium-Modified Atmosphere353
Controlled-Atmosphere Packaging or Storage354
Primary Effects of CO2 on Microorganisms . 354
Mode of Action354
Food Products . 356
Fresh and Processed Meats . 356
Poultry . 358
Seafoods358
The Safety of Map Foods 359
Other Pathogens 362
Spoilage of Map and Vacuum-packaged Meats363
Volatile Components of Vacuum-Packaged Meats and Poultry 365
15 Radiation Protection of Foods, and Nature of Microbial Radiation
Resistance371
Characteristics of Radiations of Interest in Food Preservation 372
Ultraviolet Light 372
Beta Rays372
Gamma Rays 372
X-Rays . 373
Microwaves 373
Principles Underlying The Destruction of Microorganisms
by Irradiation 373
Types of Organisms373
Numbers of Organisms 374
Composition of Suspending Menstruum (Food). 374
Presence or Absence of Oxygen 374
Physical State of Food 375
Age of Organisms 375
Processing of Foods for Irradiation 375
Selection of Foods375
Cleaning of Foods 375
Packaging375
Blanching or Heat Treatment 375
Application of Radiation 376
Gamma Radiation 376
Electron Beams/Accelerated Electrons377
Radappertization, Radicidation, and Radurization of Foods 377
Definitions . 377
Radappertization . 378
Radicidation 382
Seed sprouts and other vegetables. 383
Radurization 383
Legal Status of Food Irradiation 384
Effect of Irradiation on Food Quality. 385
Storage Stability of Irradiated Foods. 387
Nature of Radiation Resistance of Microorganisms 387
Biology of Extremely Resistant Species388
Apparent Mechanisms of Resistance390
16 Protection of Foods with Low-Temperatures395
Definitions 395
Temperature Growth Minima . 396
Preparation of Foods for Freezing 396
Freezing of Foods and Freezing Effects . 399
Storage Stability of Frozen Foods . 399
Effect of Freezing on Microorganisms401
Effect of Thawing 403
Some Characteristics of Psychrotrophs and Psychrophiles 404
The Effect of Low Temperatures on Microbial
Physiologic Mechanisms406
Nature of The Low Heat Resistance
of Psychrotrophs/Psychrophiles 409
17 Food Protection with High Temperatures 415
Factors Affecting Heat Resistance of Microorganisms 416
Water 416
Fat 416
Salts . 417
Carbohydrates . 418
pH 418
Proteins and Other Substances . 419
Numbers of Organisms 419
Age of Organisms 420
Growth Temperature . 421
Inhibitory Compounds 421
Time and Temperature 421
Effect of Ultrasonics . 422
Relative Heat Resistance of Microorganisms 422
Spore Resistance . 422
Thermal Destruction of Microorganisms 423
Thermal Death Time . 424
D Value. 425
z Value . 426
F Value . 428
Thermal Death Time Curve . 428
12-D Concept. 429
Some Characteristics of Thermophiles429
Enzymes430
Ribosomes . 432
Flagella . 432
Other Characteristics of Thermophilic Microorganisms 432
Nutrient Requirements 432
Oxygen Tension433
Cellular Lipids433
Cellular Membranes . 434
Effect of Temperature 434
Genetics 435
Canned Food Spoilage435
Low Acid (pH > 4.6) 435
Acid (pH 3.7–4.0 to 4.6)435
High Acid (pH < 4.0–3.7)436
18 Protection of Foods by Drying 443
Preparation and Drying of Low-Moisture Foods 443
Effect of Drying on Microorganisms. 445
Storage Stability of Dried Foods447
Intermediate-Moisture Foods 447
Preparation of IMF 448
Microbial Aspects of IMF452
Storage Stability of IMF . 453
IMF and Glass Transition 454
19 Other Food Protection Methods 457
High Hydrostatic Pressures (HHP, HPP). 457
Some Principles and Effects of HHP on Foods and Organisms 458
Effects of HHP on Specific Foodborne Organisms459
Pulsed Electric Fields 463
Aseptic Packaging466
Manothermosonication (Thermoultrasonication)467
Part VI INDICATORS OF FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY, PRINCIPLES OF
QUALITY CONTROL, AND MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA . 471
20 Indicators of Food Microbial Quality and Safety 473
Some Indicators of Product Quality 473
Indicators of Food Safety 475
Coliforms476
Enterococci 481
Bifidobacteria. 485
Coliphages/Enteroviruses 487
The Possible Overuse of Fecal Indicator Organisms 489
Predictive Microbiology/Microbial Modeling 491
21 The HACCP and FSO Systems for Food Safety . 497
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) System497
Prerequisite Programs 498
Definitions . 498
HACCP Principles499
Flow Diagrams 503
Application of HACCP Principles. 503
Some Limitations of HACCP 506
Food Safety Objective (FSO) 506
Microbiological Criteria 506
Definitions . 507
Sampling Plans 508
Microbiological Criteria and Food Safety 509
Microbiological Criteria for Various Products 511
Other Criteria/Guidelines 512
Part VII FOODBORNE DISEASES 517
22 Introduction to Foodborne Pathogens. 519
Introduction 519
Foodborne Illness Cases in the United States519
The Fecal–Oral Transmission of Foodborne Pathogens522
Host Invasion . 522
“Universal” Requirements522
Attachment Sites . 524
Quorum Sensing. 524
Biofilms527
Apparent Role of Quorum Sensing529
Sigma (δ) Factors529
Alternative Sigma Factors529
Pathogenesis . 532
Gram-Positive Bacteria 532
Gram-Negative Bacteria. 533
Summary . 538
23 Staphylococcal Gastroenteritis545
Species of Concern in Foods545
Habitat and Distribution 547
Incidence in Foods 548
Nutritional Requirements for Growth548
Temperature Growth Range548
Effect of Salts and Other Chemicals 548
Effect of pH, Water Activity, and Other Parameters549
NaCl and pH 549
pH, aw, and Temperature549
NaNO2, Eh, pH, and Temperature of Growth550
Staphylococcal Enterotoxins: Types and Incidence 550
Chemical and Physical Properties. 552
Production . 554
Mode of Action557
The Gastroenteritis Syndrome . 558
Incidence and Vehicle Foods 559
Ecology of S. aureus Growth560
Prevention of Staphylococcal and Other Food-Poisoning Syndromes560
24 Food Poisoning Caused by Gram-Positive Sporeforming Bacteria . 567
Clostridium Perfringens Food Poisoning 567
Distribution of C. perfringens568
Characteristics of the Organism 568
The Enterotoxin570
Vehicle Foods and Symptoms571
Prevention . 572
Botulism573
Distribution of C. botulinum 574
Growth of C. botulinum Strains 576
Ecology of C. botulinum Growth 578
Concerns for Sous Vide and Related Food Products 579
Nature of the Botulinal Neurotoxins580
The Adult Botulism Syndrome: Incidence and Vehicle Foods 581
Infant Botulism 582
Bacillus Cereus Gastroenteritis583
B. cereus Toxins 583
Diarrheal Syndrome . 584
Emetic Syndrome . 585
25 Foodborne Listeriosis . 591
Taxonomy of Listeria 591
Serotypes 594
Subspecies Typing 594
Growth595
Effect of pH 595
Combined Effect of pH and NaCl. 596
Effect of Temperature 597
Effect of aw 598
Distribution 598
The Environment . 598
Foods and Humans 598
Prevalence . 600
Thermal Properties 600
Dairy Products601
Nondairy Products602
Effect of Sublethal Heating on Thermotolerance 603
Virulence Properties 603
Listeriolysin O and Ivanolysin O 603
Intracellular Invasion . 604
Monocytosis-Producing Activity 604
Sphingomyelinase 605
Animal Models and Infectious Dose. 605
Incidence and Nature of The Listeriosis Syndromes 606
Incidence 606
Source of Pathogens . 607
Syndromes . 609
Resistance to Listeriosis 609
Persistence of L. monocytogenes in Foods 610
Regulatory Status of L. monocytogenes in Foods611
26 Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Salmonella and Shigella. 619
Salmonellosis 619
Serotyping of Salmonella620
Distribution 620
Growth and Destruction of Salmonellae 623
The Salmonella Food-Poisoning Syndrome 625
Salmonella Virulence Properties 625
Incidence and Vehicle Foods625
Prevention and Control of Salmonellosis . 629
Competitive Exclusion to Reduce Salmonellae Carriage in Poultry 629
Shigellosis 631
Foodborne Cases . 634
Virulence Properties . 634
27 Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Escherichia coli637
Serological Classification 637
The Recognized Virulence Groups 637
Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAggEC) 637
Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)639
Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) 647
Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) 648
Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) 648
Prevention 650
Travelers’ Diarrhea . 650
28 Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Vibrio, Yersinia, and Campylobacter
Species . 657
Vibriosis (Vibrio parahaemolyticus). 657
Growth Conditions657
Virulence Properties . 659
Gastroenteritis Syndrome and Vehicle Foods660
Other Vibrios . 661
Vibrio cholerae661
Vibrio vulnificus663
Vibrio alginolyticus and V. hollisae664
Yersiniosis (Yersinia enterocolitica). 664
Growth Requirements 665
Distribution 666
Serovars and Biovars . 666
Virulence Factors. 667
Incidence of Y. enterocolitica in Foods668
Gastroenteritis Syndrome and Incidence . 668
Campylobacteriosis (Campylobacter jejuni) 668
Distribution 669
Virulence Properties . 670
Enteritis Syndrome and Prevalence671
Prevention 671
29 Foodborne Animal Parasites. 679
Protozoa679
Giardiasis680
Amebiasis . 682
Toxoplasmosis683
Distribution of T. gondii. 684
Sarcocystosis 686
Cryptosporidiosis. 687
Cyclosporiasis . 689
Flatworms. 690
Fascioliasis 691
Fasciolopsiasis691
Paragonimiasis692
Clonorchiasis. 692
Diphyllobothriasis 693
Cysticercosis/Taeniasis 695
Roundworms . 696
Trichinosis . 697
Anisakiasis 702
30 Mycotoxins 709
Aflatoxins. 709
Requirements for Growth and Toxin Production 710
Production and Occurrence in Foods 711
Relative Toxicity and Mode of Action 713
Degradation 714
Alternaria Toxins 715
Citrinin715
Ochratoxins 716
Patulin. 716
Penicillic Acid 717
Sterigmatocystin. 717
Fumonisins718
Growth and Production 718
Prevalence in Corn and Feeds719
Physical/Chemical Properties of FB1 and FB2719
Pathology 720
Sambutoxin 721
Zearalenone 722
Control of Production 722
31 Viruses and Some Other Proven and Suspected Foodborne Biohazards 727
Viruses727
Incidence in Foods and the Environment . 728
Destruction in Foods . 728
Hepatitis A Virus . 729
Noroviruses 730
Rotaviruses 731
Bacteria732
Enterobacter sakazakii 732
Histamine-Associated (Scombroid) Poisoning732
Prion Diseases 737
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) 737
Creutzfeldt-Jakob Diseases (CJD, vCJD) . 738
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) 739
Toxigenic Phytoplanktons. 739
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning 739
Ciguatera Poisoning . 740
Domoic Acid 740
Appendix 747
Index 751
1 History of Microorganisms in Food3
Historical Developments 4
Food Preservation 5
Food Spoilage 6
Food Poisoning 7
Food Legislation 8
Part II HABITATS, TAXONOMY, AND GROWTH PARAMETERS. 11
2 Taxonomy, Role, and Significance of Microorganisms in Foods. 13
Bacterial Taxonomy . 14
rRNA Analyses 14
Analysis of DNA. 15
The Proteobacteria 15
Primary Sources of Microorganisms Found in Foods . 17
Synopsis of Common Foodborne Bacteria 20
Synopsis of Common Genera of Foodborne Molds 27
Synopsis of Common Genera of Foodborne Yeasts 31
3 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Parameters of Foods That Affect Microbial Growth. 39
Intrinsic Parameters. 39
pH 39
Moisture Content. 45
Oxidation-Reduction Potential. 49
Nutrient Content 52
Antimicrobial Constituents. 53
Biological Structures. 54
Extrinsic Parameters 54
Temperature of Storage 54
Relative Humidity of Environment56
Presence and Concentration of Gases in the Environment. 56
Presence and Activities of Other Microorganisms 56
Part III MICROORGANISMS IN FOODS. 61
4 Fresh Meats and Poultry. 63
Biochemical Events That Lead to Rigor Mortis64
The Biota of Meats and Poultry64
Incidence/Prevalence of Microorganisms in Fresh Red Meats66
Bacteria 68
Soy-Extended Ground Meats 73
Mechanically Deboned Meats74
Hot-Boned Meats. 75
Organ and Variety Meats77
Microbial Spoilage of Fresh Red Meats. 78
Mechanism 82
Spoilage of Fresh Livers 87
Incidence/Prevalence of Microorganisms in Fresh Poultry88
Microbial Spoilage of Poultry. 89
Carcass Sanitizing/Washing91
5 Processed Meats and Seafoods 101
Processed Meats. 101
Curing101
Smoking 103
Sausage, Bacon, Bologna, and Related Products 103
Spoilage 104
Bacon and Cured Hams. 108
Safety108
Seafoods 109
Fish and Shellfish. 109
Microorganisms109
Spoilage of Fish and Shellfish. 115
Fish. 115
Shellfish 118
6 Vegetable and Fruit Products 125
Fresh and Frozen Vegetables 125
Spoilage 128
Bacterial Agents 128
Fungal Agents. 134
Spoilage of Fruits 137
Fresh-Cut Produce138
Microbial Load138
Seed Sprouts 139
Pathogens140
Internalization of Pathogens 142
Disease Outbreaks 143
7 Milk, Fermentation, and Fermented and Nonfermented Dairy Products. 149
Fermentation. 149
Background 149
Defined and Characterized150
The Lactic Acid Bacteria150
Metabolic Pathways and Molar Growth Yields 154
Acetic Acid Bacteria 155
Dairy Products 156
Milk. 156
Processing. 157
Pasteurization. 157
General Microbiota of Milk. 158
Milk-Borne Pathogens 158
Spoilage 160
Probiotics and Prebiotics 161
Lactose Intolerance . 162
Starter Cultures, Fermented Products . 163
Fermented Products164
Cheeses. 168
Diseases caused by Lactic Acid Bacteria 169
8 Nondairy Fermented Foods and Products 175
Meat Products 175
Fish Products . 178
Breads . 179
Plant Products 180
Sauerkraut . 180
Olives180
Pickles . 181
Beer, Ale, Wines, Cider, and Distilled Spirits 182
Beer and Ale 182
Wines184
Cider185
Distilled Spirits 186
Miscellaneous Products . 188
9 Miscellaneous Food Products197
Delicatessen and Related Foods 197
Eggs 198
Mayonnaise and Salad Dressing 202
Cereals, Flour, and Dough Products 203
Bakery Products. 203
Frozen Meat Pies204
Sugars, Candies, and Spices204
Nutmeats 205
Dehydrated Foods 206
Enteral Nutrient Solutions (Medical Foods) . 206
Single-Cell Protein (SCP) 207
Rationale for SCP Production 207
Organisms and Fermentation Substrates207
SCP Products. 209
Nutrition and Safety of SCP 209
Bottled Water . 210
Part IV DETERMINING MICROORGANISMS AND/OR THEIR PRODUCTS IN FOODS. 215
10 Culture, Microscopic, and Sampling Methods217
Conventional Standard Plate Count 217
Homogenization of Food Samples . 218
The Spiral Plater 219
Membrane Filters220
Direct Epifluorescent Filter Technique 221
Microcolony-DEFT 221
Hydrophobic Grid Membrane Filter (HGMF) 222
Microscope Colony Counts223
Agar Droplets 223
Dry Film and Related Methods223
Most Probable Numbers 224
Dye Reduction 225
Roll Tubes 225
Direct Microscopic Count (DMC) 225
Howard Mold Counts 226
Microbiological Examination of Surfaces226
Swab/Swab-Rinse Methods. 227
Contact Plate 227
Agar Syringe/“Agar Sausage” Methods 228
Other Surface Methods 228
Metabolically Injured Organisms . 229
Recovery/Repair 231
Mechanism of Repair 233
Viable but Nonculturable Organisms . 233
11 Chemical, Biological, and Physical Methods . 241
Chemical Methods241
Thermostable Nuclease 241
Limulus Lysate for Endotoxins . 244
Adenosine Triphosphate Measurement 247
Radiometry 247
Fluorogenic and Chromogenic Substrates 248
Immunological Methods 250
Serotyping . 250
Fluorescent Antibody 251
Enrichment Serology . 252
Salmonella 1–2 Test . 252
Radioimmunoassay 253
ELISA. 253
Gel Diffusion . 255
Immunomagnetic Separation255
Hemagglutination256
Molecular Genetic Methods 256
Nucleic Acid (DNA) Probes 257
Polymerase Chain Reaction . 258
Lux Gene Luminescence261
Ice Nucleation Assay . 262
Fingerprinting Methods . 263
Bacteriophage Typing 263
Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism. 265
Multilocus Enzyme Electrophoresis Typing. 265
Restriction Enzyme Analysis 266
Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA266
Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis 267
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism267
Ribotyping . 268
Microarrays 268
Physical Methods269
Biosensors . 269
Impedance 272
Microcalorimetry . 273
Flow Cytometry274
BioSys Instrument 275
12 Bioassay and Related Methods . 285
Whole-Animal Assays285
Mouse Lethality285
Suckling (Infant) Mouse. 288
Rabbit and Mouse Diarrhea . 288
Monkey Feeding 289
Kitten (Cat) Test289
Rabbit and Guinea Pig Skin Tests. 289
Sereny and Anton Tests. 290
Animal Models Requiring Surgical Procedures . 290
Ligated Loop Techniques 290
The RITARD Model . 291
Cell Culture Systems291
Human Mucosal Cells 292
Human Fetal Intestine 292
Human Ileal and Intestinal Cells 292
Guinea Pig Intestinal Cells 292
HeLa Cells . 294
Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells294
Vero Cells . 295
Y-1 Adrenal Cell Assay. 295
Other Assays 295
Part V FOOD PROTECTION AND SOME PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROTROPHS, THERMOPHILES, AND RADIATION-RESISTANT BACTERIA 299
13 Food Protection with Chemicals, and by Biocontrol 301
Benzoic Acid and The Parabens 301
Sorbic Acid 303
The Propionates. 305
Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfites305
Nitrites and Nitrates. 306
Organisms Affected 307
The Perigo Factor. 308
Interaction with Cure Ingredients and Other Factors 308
Nitrosamines 309
Nitrite–Sorbate and Other Nitrite Combinations. 309
Mode of Action310
Summary of Nitrite Effects . 311
Food Sanitizers 312
Acidified Sodium Chlorite . 312
Electrolized oxidizing water 312
Activated Lactoferrin (ALF, Activin) . 314
Ozone (O3) 314
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) . 315
Chlorine and Other Agents . 317
NaCl and Sugars . 320
Indirect Antimicrobials . 321
Antioxidants 321
Flavoring Agents . 322
Spices and Essential Oils323
Phosphates . 324
Medium-Chain Fatty Acids and Esters 324
Acetic and Lactic Acids 326
Salts of Acetic and Lactic Acids 326
Antibiotics 327
Monensin 328
Natamycin . 329
Tetracyclines 329
Subtilin . 330
Tylosin . 330
Antifungal Agents for Fruits330
Ethylene and Propylene Oxides331
Miscellaneous Chemical Preservatives331
Chitosans 331
Dimethyl Dicarbonate 332
Ethanol . 332
Glucose Oxidase . 333
Polyamino Acids . 333
Biocontrol. 333
Microbial Interference 333
Nisin and Other Bacteriocins336
Other Bacteriocins339
Endolysins 339
Bacteriophages as Biocontrol Agents340
The Hurdle Concept. 341
14 Food Protection with Modified Atmospheres351
Definitions 351
Hypobaric (Low Pressure) Storage351
Vacuum Packaging352
Modified Atmosphere Packaging 353
Equilibrium-Modified Atmosphere353
Controlled-Atmosphere Packaging or Storage354
Primary Effects of CO2 on Microorganisms . 354
Mode of Action354
Food Products . 356
Fresh and Processed Meats . 356
Poultry . 358
Seafoods358
The Safety of Map Foods 359
Other Pathogens 362
Spoilage of Map and Vacuum-packaged Meats363
Volatile Components of Vacuum-Packaged Meats and Poultry 365
15 Radiation Protection of Foods, and Nature of Microbial Radiation
Resistance371
Characteristics of Radiations of Interest in Food Preservation 372
Ultraviolet Light 372
Beta Rays372
Gamma Rays 372
X-Rays . 373
Microwaves 373
Principles Underlying The Destruction of Microorganisms
by Irradiation 373
Types of Organisms373
Numbers of Organisms 374
Composition of Suspending Menstruum (Food). 374
Presence or Absence of Oxygen 374
Physical State of Food 375
Age of Organisms 375
Processing of Foods for Irradiation 375
Selection of Foods375
Cleaning of Foods 375
Packaging375
Blanching or Heat Treatment 375
Application of Radiation 376
Gamma Radiation 376
Electron Beams/Accelerated Electrons377
Radappertization, Radicidation, and Radurization of Foods 377
Definitions . 377
Radappertization . 378
Radicidation 382
Seed sprouts and other vegetables. 383
Radurization 383
Legal Status of Food Irradiation 384
Effect of Irradiation on Food Quality. 385
Storage Stability of Irradiated Foods. 387
Nature of Radiation Resistance of Microorganisms 387
Biology of Extremely Resistant Species388
Apparent Mechanisms of Resistance390
16 Protection of Foods with Low-Temperatures395
Definitions 395
Temperature Growth Minima . 396
Preparation of Foods for Freezing 396
Freezing of Foods and Freezing Effects . 399
Storage Stability of Frozen Foods . 399
Effect of Freezing on Microorganisms401
Effect of Thawing 403
Some Characteristics of Psychrotrophs and Psychrophiles 404
The Effect of Low Temperatures on Microbial
Physiologic Mechanisms406
Nature of The Low Heat Resistance
of Psychrotrophs/Psychrophiles 409
17 Food Protection with High Temperatures 415
Factors Affecting Heat Resistance of Microorganisms 416
Water 416
Fat 416
Salts . 417
Carbohydrates . 418
pH 418
Proteins and Other Substances . 419
Numbers of Organisms 419
Age of Organisms 420
Growth Temperature . 421
Inhibitory Compounds 421
Time and Temperature 421
Effect of Ultrasonics . 422
Relative Heat Resistance of Microorganisms 422
Spore Resistance . 422
Thermal Destruction of Microorganisms 423
Thermal Death Time . 424
D Value. 425
z Value . 426
F Value . 428
Thermal Death Time Curve . 428
12-D Concept. 429
Some Characteristics of Thermophiles429
Enzymes430
Ribosomes . 432
Flagella . 432
Other Characteristics of Thermophilic Microorganisms 432
Nutrient Requirements 432
Oxygen Tension433
Cellular Lipids433
Cellular Membranes . 434
Effect of Temperature 434
Genetics 435
Canned Food Spoilage435
Low Acid (pH > 4.6) 435
Acid (pH 3.7–4.0 to 4.6)435
High Acid (pH < 4.0–3.7)436
18 Protection of Foods by Drying 443
Preparation and Drying of Low-Moisture Foods 443
Effect of Drying on Microorganisms. 445
Storage Stability of Dried Foods447
Intermediate-Moisture Foods 447
Preparation of IMF 448
Microbial Aspects of IMF452
Storage Stability of IMF . 453
IMF and Glass Transition 454
19 Other Food Protection Methods 457
High Hydrostatic Pressures (HHP, HPP). 457
Some Principles and Effects of HHP on Foods and Organisms 458
Effects of HHP on Specific Foodborne Organisms459
Pulsed Electric Fields 463
Aseptic Packaging466
Manothermosonication (Thermoultrasonication)467
Part VI INDICATORS OF FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY, PRINCIPLES OF
QUALITY CONTROL, AND MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA . 471
20 Indicators of Food Microbial Quality and Safety 473
Some Indicators of Product Quality 473
Indicators of Food Safety 475
Coliforms476
Enterococci 481
Bifidobacteria. 485
Coliphages/Enteroviruses 487
The Possible Overuse of Fecal Indicator Organisms 489
Predictive Microbiology/Microbial Modeling 491
21 The HACCP and FSO Systems for Food Safety . 497
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) System497
Prerequisite Programs 498
Definitions . 498
HACCP Principles499
Flow Diagrams 503
Application of HACCP Principles. 503
Some Limitations of HACCP 506
Food Safety Objective (FSO) 506
Microbiological Criteria 506
Definitions . 507
Sampling Plans 508
Microbiological Criteria and Food Safety 509
Microbiological Criteria for Various Products 511
Other Criteria/Guidelines 512
Part VII FOODBORNE DISEASES 517
22 Introduction to Foodborne Pathogens. 519
Introduction 519
Foodborne Illness Cases in the United States519
The Fecal–Oral Transmission of Foodborne Pathogens522
Host Invasion . 522
“Universal” Requirements522
Attachment Sites . 524
Quorum Sensing. 524
Biofilms527
Apparent Role of Quorum Sensing529
Sigma (δ) Factors529
Alternative Sigma Factors529
Pathogenesis . 532
Gram-Positive Bacteria 532
Gram-Negative Bacteria. 533
Summary . 538
23 Staphylococcal Gastroenteritis545
Species of Concern in Foods545
Habitat and Distribution 547
Incidence in Foods 548
Nutritional Requirements for Growth548
Temperature Growth Range548
Effect of Salts and Other Chemicals 548
Effect of pH, Water Activity, and Other Parameters549
NaCl and pH 549
pH, aw, and Temperature549
NaNO2, Eh, pH, and Temperature of Growth550
Staphylococcal Enterotoxins: Types and Incidence 550
Chemical and Physical Properties. 552
Production . 554
Mode of Action557
The Gastroenteritis Syndrome . 558
Incidence and Vehicle Foods 559
Ecology of S. aureus Growth560
Prevention of Staphylococcal and Other Food-Poisoning Syndromes560
24 Food Poisoning Caused by Gram-Positive Sporeforming Bacteria . 567
Clostridium Perfringens Food Poisoning 567
Distribution of C. perfringens568
Characteristics of the Organism 568
The Enterotoxin570
Vehicle Foods and Symptoms571
Prevention . 572
Botulism573
Distribution of C. botulinum 574
Growth of C. botulinum Strains 576
Ecology of C. botulinum Growth 578
Concerns for Sous Vide and Related Food Products 579
Nature of the Botulinal Neurotoxins580
The Adult Botulism Syndrome: Incidence and Vehicle Foods 581
Infant Botulism 582
Bacillus Cereus Gastroenteritis583
B. cereus Toxins 583
Diarrheal Syndrome . 584
Emetic Syndrome . 585
25 Foodborne Listeriosis . 591
Taxonomy of Listeria 591
Serotypes 594
Subspecies Typing 594
Growth595
Effect of pH 595
Combined Effect of pH and NaCl. 596
Effect of Temperature 597
Effect of aw 598
Distribution 598
The Environment . 598
Foods and Humans 598
Prevalence . 600
Thermal Properties 600
Dairy Products601
Nondairy Products602
Effect of Sublethal Heating on Thermotolerance 603
Virulence Properties 603
Listeriolysin O and Ivanolysin O 603
Intracellular Invasion . 604
Monocytosis-Producing Activity 604
Sphingomyelinase 605
Animal Models and Infectious Dose. 605
Incidence and Nature of The Listeriosis Syndromes 606
Incidence 606
Source of Pathogens . 607
Syndromes . 609
Resistance to Listeriosis 609
Persistence of L. monocytogenes in Foods 610
Regulatory Status of L. monocytogenes in Foods611
26 Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Salmonella and Shigella. 619
Salmonellosis 619
Serotyping of Salmonella620
Distribution 620
Growth and Destruction of Salmonellae 623
The Salmonella Food-Poisoning Syndrome 625
Salmonella Virulence Properties 625
Incidence and Vehicle Foods625
Prevention and Control of Salmonellosis . 629
Competitive Exclusion to Reduce Salmonellae Carriage in Poultry 629
Shigellosis 631
Foodborne Cases . 634
Virulence Properties . 634
27 Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Escherichia coli637
Serological Classification 637
The Recognized Virulence Groups 637
Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAggEC) 637
Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)639
Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) 647
Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) 648
Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) 648
Prevention 650
Travelers’ Diarrhea . 650
28 Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Vibrio, Yersinia, and Campylobacter
Species . 657
Vibriosis (Vibrio parahaemolyticus). 657
Growth Conditions657
Virulence Properties . 659
Gastroenteritis Syndrome and Vehicle Foods660
Other Vibrios . 661
Vibrio cholerae661
Vibrio vulnificus663
Vibrio alginolyticus and V. hollisae664
Yersiniosis (Yersinia enterocolitica). 664
Growth Requirements 665
Distribution 666
Serovars and Biovars . 666
Virulence Factors. 667
Incidence of Y. enterocolitica in Foods668
Gastroenteritis Syndrome and Incidence . 668
Campylobacteriosis (Campylobacter jejuni) 668
Distribution 669
Virulence Properties . 670
Enteritis Syndrome and Prevalence671
Prevention 671
29 Foodborne Animal Parasites. 679
Protozoa679
Giardiasis680
Amebiasis . 682
Toxoplasmosis683
Distribution of T. gondii. 684
Sarcocystosis 686
Cryptosporidiosis. 687
Cyclosporiasis . 689
Flatworms. 690
Fascioliasis 691
Fasciolopsiasis691
Paragonimiasis692
Clonorchiasis. 692
Diphyllobothriasis 693
Cysticercosis/Taeniasis 695
Roundworms . 696
Trichinosis . 697
Anisakiasis 702
30 Mycotoxins 709
Aflatoxins. 709
Requirements for Growth and Toxin Production 710
Production and Occurrence in Foods 711
Relative Toxicity and Mode of Action 713
Degradation 714
Alternaria Toxins 715
Citrinin715
Ochratoxins 716
Patulin. 716
Penicillic Acid 717
Sterigmatocystin. 717
Fumonisins718
Growth and Production 718
Prevalence in Corn and Feeds719
Physical/Chemical Properties of FB1 and FB2719
Pathology 720
Sambutoxin 721
Zearalenone 722
Control of Production 722
31 Viruses and Some Other Proven and Suspected Foodborne Biohazards 727
Viruses727
Incidence in Foods and the Environment . 728
Destruction in Foods . 728
Hepatitis A Virus . 729
Noroviruses 730
Rotaviruses 731
Bacteria732
Enterobacter sakazakii 732
Histamine-Associated (Scombroid) Poisoning732
Prion Diseases 737
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) 737
Creutzfeldt-Jakob Diseases (CJD, vCJD) . 738
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) 739
Toxigenic Phytoplanktons. 739
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning 739
Ciguatera Poisoning . 740
Domoic Acid 740
Appendix 747
Index 751
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